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The bulk water treatment processes described in Section 4B produce water that is good enough to drink, and which is vastly better than that drunk by millions of people in…

Water desalination by the reverse electrodialysis process is less commonly employed than reverse osmosis. It typically uses two types of ion exchange membrane, one allowing only the passage of negatively…

The key to the desalination of water by reverse osmosis lies in the proper selection of the membrane through which the separation of salt and water occurs. The original RO…

If a tank is set up divided into two compartments by a vertical barrier that is permeable to water only, and one compartment is partly filled with pure water and…

Various methods from evaporation to distillation and chemical treatment may be employed for producing fresh water from sea water and other salty water sources. The different types of technology employed…

The ubiquitous hyberbolic cooling tower is one of the most evocative sights when the theme of ‘industry’ is discussed. Its plume of steam – assumed to be a more toxic…

Much thought is currently being given to the immediate collection of rainwater and its use for low grade fresh water applications, such as toilet flushing, garden irrigation and so on.…

The major development of the deep-bed filter has been to allow the bed material to move continuously down through the filter vessel, and then to be carried back up to…

The alternative approach to match flow direction with pore size is to undertake the filtration in upwards flow. With an upflow sand filter, flow is from the bottom through to…

Conventional downflow sand filters are effective for liquid-solid separation at flow rates up to about 15m3/h.m2 of filter area, although higher rate downflow filters are available. With proper selection of…